Paula Yurkanis Bruice『Organic Chemistry 8th edition』Chapter 23 The Organic CHemistry of the Coenzymes, COmpouds Derived from Vitamins page 1142~page 1143 23.6 VITMIN B12: THE VITAMIN NEEDED FOR CERTAIN ISOMERIZATIONS
Figure 1. Anatomical organization of the pancreas Published: 11 March 2016 Pancreatic regulation of glucose homeostasis Experimental & Molecular Medicine volume 48, pagee219 (2016) 膵臓、膵島、α細胞、β細胞がわかりやすく図示されている。
Why is the reaction glucose to glucose 6-phosphate mediated by hexokinase not reversible in glyconeogenesis? (https://chat.openai.com/chat) The reaction of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, which is catalyzed by hexokinase, is an irreversible step in glycolysis. This reaction is also not reversible in gluconeogenesis. One of the main reasons for this irreversibility is the large negative free energy change that occurs during the hexokinase-catalyzed reaction. The hydrolysis of ATP that occurs during this reaction releases a large amount of free energy, making the reaction highly exergonic. This energy is then used to drive the formation of glucose-6-phosphate. In addition, glucose-6-phosphate is trapped within the cell since it cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane due to its negative charge. In gluconeogenesis, glucose-6-phosphate is produced from fructose-6-phosphate through a different enzyme called glucose-6-phosphatase. This enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose and inorganic phosphate, which allows glucose to be released from the cell and transported to other tissues.
Overall, the irreversible nature of the hexokinase-catalyzed reaction is an important feature of glucose metabolism, as it ensures that glucose is rapidly and efficiently converted to glucose-6-phosphate for energy production, and that glucose-6-phosphate is effectively trapped within the cell for further metabolism.
質問:When alanine is preferred and when lactate is prefferred in gluconeogenesis as a starting materials?
回答:
In gluconeogenesis, both alanine and lactate can be used as starting materials for glucose synthesis, but their utilization is dependent on the specific metabolic conditions. Alanine is typically preferred as a starting material in gluconeogenesis when there is a high demand for glucose and when amino acids are being mobilized from muscle tissue. During intense exercise or prolonged fasting, skeletal muscle breaks down protein to release amino acids, including alanine. Alanine is then transported to the liver where it is converted to pyruvate and used in gluconeogenesis to produce glucose. The conversion of alanine to pyruvate also generates ammonium ions, which can be incorporated into the urea cycle and excreted in urine. Thus, alanine is an important source of both glucose and nitrogen during times of high energy demand. Lactate, on the other hand, is preferred as a starting material in gluconeogenesis when there is a high demand for glucose and a shortage of oxygen. During intense exercise, the demand for ATP exceeds the supply of oxygen, leading to the production of lactate via anaerobic metabolism. Lactate is then transported to the liver, where it is converted to pyruvate and used in gluconeogenesis to produce glucose. This process is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of intense exercise or hypoxia.
Overall, the utilization of alanine or lactate in gluconeogenesis is dependent on the metabolic state of the organism and the specific demands for glucose production.
質問:What is the difference between glucose-alanine cycle and glucose-lactate cycle?
回答:
The glucose-alanine cycle and the glucose-lactate cycle are two different metabolic pathways that occur in the body during periods of intense exercise or prolonged fasting.
The glucose-alanine cycle, also known as the Cori cycle, is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the liver and skeletal muscles. During periods of intense exercise, skeletal muscles break down glycogen to produce glucose. The glucose is then transported to the liver, where it is converted to pyruvate and then to alanine, which is released into the bloodstream. The alanine is transported back to the skeletal muscles, where it is converted back to pyruvate and used to regenerate glucose through gluconeogenesis. The glucose is then transported back to the liver, completing the cycle. ん?よくわからないせつめい。
In contrast, the glucose-lactate cycle, also known as the Lactic acid cycle, is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the skeletal muscles. During periods of intense exercise, the skeletal muscles break down glycogen to produce glucose, which is then converted to pyruvate through glycolysis. Under conditions of low oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactate instead of being further metabolized to produce energy. The lactate is then transported to the liver, where it can be converted back to glucose through gluconeogenesis.
The key difference between the two cycles is the end product that is transported from the muscles to the liver. In the glucose-alanine cycle, alanine is transported, whereas in the glucose-lactate cycle, lactate is transported. Additionally, the glucose-lactate cycle occurs entirely within the skeletal muscles and liver, while the glucose-alanine cycle occurs between the liver and skeletal muscles. これもよくわからない説明
Endothelial Transcytosis of Insulin: Does It Contribute to Insulin Resistance? Warren L. Lee and Amira Klip 10 AUG 2016 https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00010.2016insulin must exit capillaries, which (in tissues like skeletal muscle and fat) are lined by a layer of continuous endothelium. Insulin must therefore pass between endothelial cells (paracellular diffusion, green arrow) or be transported across individual cells by transcytosis (red arrow) to access the interstitium.
In the human body, glucose uptake is accomplished via two mechanisms, insulin mediatedglucose uptake (IMGU), which occurs only in insulin-sensitive tissues (i.e. liver, muscle and adipocytes) and non-insulin mediated glucose uptake (NIMGU), which occurs in both insulin-sensitive and non-insulin-sensitive tissues (i.e., brain, blood cells, nerve, etc.).
GLUT1 is insulin-independent and is widely distributed in different tissues. GLUT4 is insulin-dependent and is responsible for the majority of glucose transport into muscle and adipose cells in anabolic conditions.
GLUTs 1, 3, and 4 are transporters that have high affinity for glucose ranging in Km of 2–5 mM glucose. Consequently, the functions of these transporters align with the physiological concentration of glucose of about 5 mM. On the other hand, GLUT2 has a low affinity for glucose with its Km of about 15–20 mM glucose. GLUT2, therefore, is able to move glucose into the liver cell and the pancreatic beta cell in proportion to the plasma level of glucose.
An auxiliary function of some GLUTs in the liver seems to be the transport of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), the oxidized form of ascorbic acid (AA, vitamin C) as described for the GLUT isoforms GLUT1, GLUT3, and GLUT4 [188]. The last-mentioned glucose transporter GLUT4 is known as major isoform in muscular and adipose tissues and only shows minor expression levels in the liver as well [228].
GLUT-2 (SLC2A2) also transports other dietary sugars such as galactose, mannose and fructose with a high affinity for glucosamine[11,24,25]. GLUT-2 is highly expressed in the liver, pancreatic beta cells, and on the basolateral surface of kidney and small intestine epithelia[26,27] with expression regulated by sugars and hormones[23,28].
Ascorbate regulates haematopoietic stem cell function and leukaemogenesis. Nature. 2017; 549: 476-481
Restoration of TET2 Function Blocks Aberrant Self-Renewal and Leukemia Progression.Cell. 2017; 170: 1079-1095.e20 Notably, exogenous vitamin C promotes DNA demethylation in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) (Chung et al., 2010, Esteban et al., 2010) and dramatically enhances 5hmC levels in a TET-dependent manner (Blaschke et al., 2013, Chen et al., 2013, Yin et al., 2013).
Though all of these opsins bind the same 11-cis-retinal chromophore, their absorption properties are uniquely modulated by the protein environment and its coordinated water molecules of each of the opsins to produce the set of pigments that enable color vision [16, 17]. (The photochemical determinants of color vision Bioessays. 2014 Jan; 36(1): 65–74.)
The dominant physical mechanism responsible for the opsin shift in color vision is the interaction of dipolar amino acid residues with the ground- and excited-state charge distributions of the chromophore.(How color visual pigments are tuned Gerd G. Kochendoerfer, Steven W. Lin, Thomas P. Sakmar, Richard A. Mathies Volume 24, Issue 8, 1 August 1999, Pages 300-305 Journal home page for Trends in Biochemical Sciences Review )
When human keratinocytes are grown on their dermal equivalent (fabricated collagen lattices), physiologic concentrations (1–10 nm) of RA result in an epithelium very similar to that in normally keratinized epidermis (Retinoic Acid-Induced Epidermal Transdifferentiation in Skin J. Dev. Biol. 2014, 2(3), 158-173; https://doi.org/10.3390/jdb2030158)
Regulation of keratin expression by retinoids Dermatoendocrinol. 2011 Jul-Sep; 3(3): 136–140. Published online 2011 Jul 1. doi: 10.4161/derm.3.3.15026 PMCID: PMC3219164 PMID: 22110773
Retinoids as important regulators of terminal differentiation: examining keratin expression in individual epidermal cells at various stages of keratinization. R Kopan, G Traska, E Fuchs Crossmark: Check for Updates Author and Article Information J Cell Biol (1987) 105 (1): 427–440. July 01 1987 https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.105.1.427
Mechanisms of Transport and Delivery of Vitamin A and Carotenoids to the Retinal Pigment Epithelium Mol Nutr Food Res . 2019 Aug;63(15):e1801046. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201801046. Epub 2019 Feb 14. Vision depends on the delivery of vitamin A (retinol) to the retina. Retinol in blood is bound to retinol-binding protein (RBP).