An early theory to explain human development, dating back more than two thousands years, is that of preformation. This theory provided a simple answer: we already contain in our bodies very small but fully formed members of the next generation, who merely grow within the mother until they reach the size of a baby able to survive outside the womb. Many scientists thought they saw this tiny person—which they called a homunculus—when they peered at sperm through the first microscopes in the seventeenth century.
UCLAのRoger Gorskiの研究(1990)によれば分界条床核(ぶんかいじょうしょうかく) Bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST)の大きさが女性よりも男性のほうがずっと大きい(2倍以上)のだそう。
別の研究で、オランダのDick F. Swaabの研究によれば前視床下部間質核(ぜんししょうかぶかんしつかく)Interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH)の大きさが男性の方が大きいのだそう。
解剖学的な差は見つかっているとして、それと性自認とどうつながるのか(つながらないのか)のでしょうか。Kruijvert et al., 2000の論文によると、体が男性で性自認が女性の人(Male to Female Transsexual; M to F)の場合には、分界条床核のソマトスタチン陽性神経細胞の数が「女性と同様」で男性の半分くらいしかなかったそうです。ちなみに男性のゲイの人の場合には、男性と差がなかったのだそう。このことから分界条床核はジェンダー・アイデンティティと関係があると考えられているそう。
では大脳皮質においても性差があるのでしょうか。『話を聞かない男 地図が読めない女』(2002年)という本が昔ベストセラーになりましたが、どうやら違いがあるようです。ブロックを空間で回転させるように頭でイメージするテストは男性のほうが成績が良かったという論文があるそう。また、別の研究ではBrain activation during human navigation: gender-differnet neural networks ans substrate of performanceという論文があるそう。
Grön, G., Wunderlich, A., Spitzer, M. et al.Brain activation during human navigation: gender-different neural networks as substrate of performance.Nat Neurosci3, 404–408 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1038/73980
Are male and female brains different? – BBC REEL BBC Reel チャンネル登録者数 48.5万人 ”Have wee actually found any differences between the brains of MEN and the brains of WOMEN?” ”The answer is: NO.” (1分12秒~)
アンドロゲン・シャワー仮説
下の創設では、アンドロゲンシャワーは性自認には影響しないと述べています。
Increasing evidence confirms that prenatal androgens have facilitative effects on male-typed activity interests and engagement (including child toy preferences and adult careers), and spatial abilities, but relatively minimal effects on gender identity.
Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2016 Feb; 7: 53–60. doi: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.11.011 PMCID: PMC4681519 NIHMSID: NIHMS740435 PMID: 26688827 How Early Hormones Shape Gender Development Sheri A. Berenbauma and Adriene M. Beltzb
Early androgen exposure and human gender development Melissa Hines,Mihaela Constantinescu, and Debra Spencer Biol Sex Differ. 2015; 6: 3. Published online 2015 Feb 26. doi: 10.1186/s13293-015-0022-1 PMCID: PMC4350266 PMID: 25745554
In mammals, the existence of primitive endoderm and its association with both the extra-embryonic yolk sac and the embryo proper had been noted at the end of the 19th century. The primitive endoderm underlying the primitive ectoderm/epiblast became known as visceral endoderm, whereas that on the maternal side became parietal endoderm, as first recognized by Duval and Sobotta (Duval, 1891; Sobotta, 1911)
However, many years passed before it became clear that the primitive endoderm is replaced by definitive endoderm, which mainly gives rise to the lining of the gut. The first clear experimental demonstration came from the careful experiments of Bellairs, who combined electron and light microscopy, cell marking and experimental embryology. Bellairs established that the deep layer of ‘endoderm’ present in chick embryos before the appearance of the primitive streak contributes to the extra-embryonic yolk sac stalk (Bellairs, 1953a; Bellairs, 1953b). Thus, the early chick embryo contains a transitory, extra-embryonic cell layer at its ventral surface. Its name, ‘endoderm’, was replaced by the term ‘hypoblast’, to distinguish it from definitive gut endoderm, which, as shown by Bellairs, is derived from the epiblast via ingression through the primitive streak, replacing the hypoblast.
Hypoblast cells form an extraembryonic cell layer on the surface of the inner cell mass and faces the blastocoelic cavity. It gives rise to the visceral and parietal endoderm. The hypoblast cells are separated from the epiblast layer by an extracellular basement membrane. Notes These cells are evident from E7 in mouse development. Lineage marker transcription factors are: SOX17, GATA4, GATA6, PDGFRa. Human hypoblast differentiation differs from that observed in mouse, rat and cow embryos in their absence of appreciable Laminin expression in the presumptive hypoblast and downregulation of GATA6 in a subset of SOX17-expressing cells. This, in addition to different reactions to FGF/Erk signaling inhibitors, suggests that the human hypoblast may segregate by unique mechanisms.
No evidence of involvement of E-cadherin in cell fate specification or the segregation of Epi and PrE in mouse blastocysts Katarzyna Filimonow,Nestor Saiz,Aneta Suwińska,Tomasz Wyszomirski,Joanna B. Grabarek,Elisabetta Ferretti,Anna Piliszek,Berenika Plusa ,Marek Maleszewski Published: February 8, 2019 PLoS One. 2019; 14(2): e0212109. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212109
Blastocyst development embryology.med.unsw.edu.au (Greek, blastos = sprout + cystos = cavity) or blastula, the term used to describe the hollow cellular mass that forms in early development.
胞を作っている部分が、trophoblast 栄養外胚葉で、その内側に細胞の塊が存在しており、inner cell mass 内細胞塊と呼ばれます。inner cell mass 内細胞塊は、embryoblast 胚芽(はいが)とも呼ばれます。将来、ヒトの体になるのがこのinner cell mass 内細胞塊です。
The hypoblast forms a squamous epithelium covering the epiblast58 and expands beyond the epiblast margin. At this stage, hypoblast cells diversify into visceral and parietal endoderm (Fig. 2). Visceral endoderm overlies the epiblast and gives rise to a cuboidal epithelium. The peripheral hypoblast cells become parietal endoderm, which forms an inner lining of the trophoblast. Both visceral and parietal endoderm contribute to the primary yolk sac55,59.
Carlson FIG.5.2 および本文 “The epiblast contains the cells that make up the embryo itself, but extraembryonic tissues also arise from this layer. The next layer to appear after the hypoblast is the amnion, a layer of extraembryonic ectoderm that ultimately encloses the entire embryo in a fluid-filled chamber called the amniotic cavity (see Chapter 7).”
Implantation is the process of the blastocyst embedding into the endometrial lining of the uterus, which typically occurs in Week 2 of development. For implantation to occur, the blastocyst must completely hatch from the zona pellucida once the conceptus enters the uterine cavity. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554562/
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32310425/ The yolk sac, or umbilical vesicle, is a small membranous structure outside the embryo with various functions during embryonic development. The yolk sac reduces in size, communicates ventrally with the developing embryo via the yolk stalk, and later regresses.
Legier, T., Rattier, D., Llewellyn, J. et al.Epithelial disruption drives mesendoderm differentiation in human pluripotent stem cells by enabling TGF-β protein sensing.Nat Commun14, 349 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-35965-8
尾芽 tail budと第2次神経誘導
Fate of the Primitive Streak, Teratomas, formation of the Notochord, Diastematomyelia, Chordoma, + Douglas Gillard, DC, Professor of Clinical Science チャンネル登録者数 6.49万人
The extraembryonic coelom, also called the chorionic cavity, is continuous with the intraembryonic coelomalong the lateral edge of the embryo, where the lateral plate mesoderm has split into splanchnopleuric and somatopleuric layers.
After complete resection, a small but significant survival benefit has been seen with platinum-basedadjuvant chemotherapy 補助化学療法 for patients with stage II to IIIA disease.
As adjuvant therapy 補助療法, first-generation EGFR-TKIs are not associated with a survival benefit among patients with NSCLC who have EGFR wild-type or amplified tumors.
The EVAN trial showed a longer disease-free survival at 2 years with adjuvanterlotinib than with chemotherapy among patients with EGFR mutation–positive stage IIIA tumors.
In the ADJUVANT/CTONG1104 trial involving patients with stage II to IIIA EGFR mutation–positive NSCLC, the median disease-free survival among patients in the intention-to-treat population who received adjuvant gefitinib was significantly longer than that among patients who received chemotherapy and disease-free survival was higher at 3 years, although this benefit did not translate to an overall survival advantage.
Wu and colleagues now report in the Journal the results of the phase 3, double-blind, randomized ADAURA trial of osimertinib as adjuvant therapy administered for 3 years after complete resection in patients with stage IB to IIIA EGFR mutation–positive NSCLC.
EGFR-TKIs plus chemotherapy are currently being studied as neoadjuvant therapy in patients with EGFR mutation–positive stage II to IIIB disease and as first-line therapy in patients with EGFR mutation–positive metastatic disease. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe2029532
Both longer duration and higher average amount of alcohol consumption were associated with elevated risk for colorectal cancer (HR 1.93, 95% CI 1.17–3.18 for ≥ 30 years of consumption compared to non-drinkers; HR 2.24, 95% CI 1.31–3.84 for ≥ 30 g/d).
Cho S, Shin A, Park SK, Shin HR, Chang SH, Yoo KY. Alcohol Drinking, Cigarette Smoking and Risk of Colorectal Cancer in the Korean Multi-center Cancer Cohort. J Cancer Prev. 2015 Jun;20(2):147-52. doi: 10.15430/JCP.2015.20.2.147. PMID: 26151048; PMCID: PMC4492359.
Journal of Cancer Preventionは、韓国のがん予防学会が発行する学術誌です。論文のなかの表を見るとnever-drinkerがRef.となっているので、non-drinkerというのはformer drinkerのことで、never-drinkerに対するハザード比を計算したということなのでしょう。言葉がちょっとわかりにくかったです。
別の論文
Park SY, Wilkens LR, Setiawan VW, Monroe KR, Haiman CA, Le Marchand L. Alcohol Intake and Colorectal Cancer Risk in the Multiethnic Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2019 Jan 1;188(1):67-76. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwy208. PMID: 30239578; PMCID: PMC6321802.
を見てみます。対象者は、190,698人の黒人、ハワイ人(原住民)、日系アメリカ人、ヒスパニック、白人(black, Native Hawaiian, Japanese-American, Latino, and white persons)。16.7年間追跡調査して、4923人が大腸癌になったそう。結果ですが、1日30g以上のアルコールを摂取していた男性のハザード比は、 1.28 (95% CI: 1.12, 1.45) for ≥30.0 g/day among menだったそう。
higher alcohol intake in early adulthood may be associated with a higher risk of developing CRC later in life
Hur J, Smith-Warner SA, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Wu K, Cao Y, Giovannucci E. Alcohol intake in early adulthood and risk of colorectal cancer: three large prospective cohort studies of men and women in the United States. Eur J Epidemiol. 2021 Mar;36(3):325-333. doi: 10.1007/s10654-021-00723-x. Epub 2021 Feb 15. PMID: 33586078; PMCID: PMC8168576.
飲酒と大腸癌との関係を示した論文は、非常にたくさんありました。
その他の論文
Jin EH, Han K, Shin CM, Lee DH, Kang SJ, Lim JH, Choi YJ. Sex and Tumor-Site Differences in the Association of Alcohol Intake With the Risk of Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2023 Aug 1;41(22):3816-3825. doi: 10.1200/JCO.22.01895. Epub 2023 Jun 14. PMID: 37315287; PMCID: PMC10419447.
Lin TC, Chien WC, Hu JM, Tzeng NS, Chung CH, Pu TW, Hsiao CW, Chen CY. Risk of colorectal cancer in patients with alcoholism: A nationwide, population-based nested case-control study. PLoS One. 2020 May 12;15(5):e0232740. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232740. PMID: 32396577; PMCID: PMC7217430.
McNabb S, Harrison TA, Albanes D, Berndt SI, Brenner H, Caan BJ, Campbell PT, Cao Y, Chang-Claude J, Chan A, Chen Z, English DR, Giles GG, Giovannucci EL, Goodman PJ, Hayes RB, Hoffmeister M, Jacobs EJ, Joshi AD, Larsson SC, Le Marchand L, Li L, Lin Y, Männistö S, Milne RL, Nan H, Newton CC, Ogino S, Parfrey PS, Petersen PS, Potter JD, Schoen RE, Slattery ML, Su YR, Tangen CM, Tucker TC, Weinstein SJ, White E, Wolk A, Woods MO, Phipps AI, Peters U. Meta-analysis of 16 studies of the association of alcohol with colorectal cancer. Int J Cancer. 2020 Feb 1;146(3):861-873. doi: 10.1002/ijc.32377. Epub 2019 Jun 7. PMID: 31037736; PMCID: PMC6819207. associations at moderate levels of alcohol consumption are less clear.
Rossi M, Jahanzaib Anwar M, Usman A, Keshavarzian A, Bishehsari F. Colorectal Cancer and Alcohol Consumption-Populations to Molecules. Cancers (Basel). 2018 Jan 30;10(2):38. doi: 10.3390/cancers10020038. PMID: 29385712; PMCID: PMC5836070.
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman “for their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19”
The Elements of Style, Fourth Edition William Strunk Jr. Kindle版135円 商品紹介文:英語で文を書く人ならだれでも、ストランクとホワイトの共著によるコンパクトな文章参考書の傑作『The Elements of Style』を知っている。「すべての単語に語らせよ」 完ぺきな古典
別の著者による最近の本として、Styleという似た名前の本もあります。こちらは、lessons inとかbasics of とか ten lessons in などさらに似た題名のものがあって、全部が同じものなのかどうかよくわかりません。The basics of は出版社がロングマンでページ数も170ページ程度、一方、Lessons in は出版社がピアソンでページ数は300ページ弱なので、別の本のようです。しかしややこしい。
Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace, 13th edition Published by Pearson (July 14, 2021) 2021 Joseph M. Williams University of Chicago Joseph Bizup University of Chicago 240ページ 第13版もキンドルでの販売はないようです。ピアソン独自の電子書籍システムでの販売のみなのでしょうか。電子書籍が出版社ごとにフォーマットが異なり、単一の電子書籍端末で読めないとなると、電子書籍の意味がなくなってしまいますね。
The 13th Edition includes up-to-date advice on gender-neutral writing, as well as writing for global audiences. (ピアソン商品紹介サイト)
Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace Twelfth Edition 2016/1/4 Joseph Williams, Joseph Bizup キンドル書籍の販売はなし。
Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace 10th Edition by Joseph M. Williams (Author), Gregory G. Colomb Publisher : Pearson January 14, 2010 288 pages ISBN-13 : 978-0205747467
Style: The Basics of Clarity and Grace Fourth edition 2010/10/1 Joseph M. Williams, Gregory G. Colomb. 2010/10/1 Longman 168ページ ISBN-13 : 978-0205830763
Style: The Basics of Clarity and Grace Fifth edition 2014/1/14 Joseph Williams, Joseph Bizup キンドル16000円!?
Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace (8th Edition) 2005/1/2Joseph M. Williams
Style Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace Fifth edition Joseph Williams
Johnson
Edward D. Johnson. The Handbook of Good English Revised and Updated 1991/9/1
英語圏では、plain languageを使いましょうという動き(plain language movement)があるのだそうです。公文書にせよなんにせよ、読んだ人に直ちに理解してもらえないような読みにくい英語の文章を追放して、代わりに誰が読んでもすぐに意味がわかるやさしい英語でシンプルに書きましょうということのようです。